| Much has been studied to further understand | | | | examined a year later. The relationships between |
| smoking initiation in adolescents and smoking | | | | sub-scale scores acquired measured at baseline and |
| cessation in adults, including the social cognitive | | | | cigarettes smoked per week measured at one-year |
| theory of self-efficacy and outcome expectations. | | | | follow up were determined. Self-efficacy measure |
| Nevertheless, their role as predictors of quitting | | | | was composed of two cohesive factors and that |
| smoking requires further study. It is important to | | | | these sub-scales correlated consistently with |
| develop measures of self efficacy to resist smoking | | | | predictions from the social cognitive theory construct. |
| in various situations identified by adolescents as high | | | | Higher self-efficacy to resist smoking in the presence |
| risk for initiating smoking and outcome expectations | | | | of negative affect and social opportunities to smoke |
| across psychosocial, emotional and physical aspects | | | | were prognostic of adolescent smokers smoking |
| for quitting smoking for good. An age-appropriate | | | | fewer cigarettes per week a year later, with baseline |
| criterion for quitting smoking completely in order to | | | | smoking behaviors adjusted. As predicted, higher |
| determine the perceived consequence of smoking | | | | expectations of negative emotional outcomes for |
| cessation even among adolescents who smoked less | | | | quitting smoking were correlated with smoking more |
| than daily is important. A higher self-efficacy to | | | | cigarettes per week a year later. The affect |
| refuse to give in to smoking would be associated | | | | regulation properties of smoking predict further |
| with fewer cigarettes at follow up, as well as higher | | | | smoking even in occasional smokers. The effect of |
| expectations of positive outcomes for stopping | | | | gender differences was also assessed if this factor |
| smoking. | | | | would affect self-efficacy and outcome expectations |
| There are three main motivational concepts predicting | | | | at the one-year follow up. Women seemed to have |
| the intention to planned behavioral change, such as | | | | significantly greater endorsement of negative |
| smoking cessation: self-efficacy, social influence and | | | | emotional outcome expectations than did men; |
| attitude. Attitude consists of perceived advantages | | | | however, further analysis revealed that the |
| and disadvantages of a behavior, which can be | | | | difference was mostly due to an item regarding |
| determined by assessing the beliefs involving this | | | | "concern about weight if quit smoking". Females |
| behavior and the evaluation of these beliefs. | | | | scored significantly higher in this sub-scale than did |
| Self-efficacy can be measured by examining | | | | men. This was the only gender related difference |
| perceived capability to perform and maintain a | | | | found in the study. |
| specific behavior. Determining beliefs that involve the | | | | Thus, to motivate behavioral change in adolescents |
| influence of social environment on a behavior can | | | | who currently smoke, one must emphasize on |
| assess social influence. | | | | smoker's perception of the advantages and |
| A recent study in the United States by Solomon et | | | | disadvantages of smoking cessation. The emotional |
| al., (2005) showed that there was a significant | | | | aspect in dealing with these individuals should not be |
| relationship between the outcomes expectations and | | | | disregarded, since affect regulation may be an |
| self-efficacy and the desire to quit smoking. Rating | | | | important consideration in helping adolescents manage |
| scales were drafted and data collected was factor | | | | their smoking. |
| analyzed using the scales. Scores were then | | | | |